human nutrition 2.......;))

Elaborate on the term Vegetarian, why people choose to be vegetarians, and the implications of being a Vegan.
Vegetarian encompasses the practice of following plant-based diets (fruits, vegetables, etc.), with or without the inclusion of dairy products or eggs, and with the exclusion of meat (red meat, poultry, and seafood). Abstention from by-products of animal slaughter, such as animal-derived rennet and gelatin, may also be practiced.
More and more professionals in medical and nutritional fields recognize the health advantages to a vegetarian diet. With the increased understanding of the health benefits associated with the elimination of meat and dairy, choosing a vegetarian lifestyle for health reasons is growing in popularity. These benefits include things like:
Lower cholesterol
Reduced risk of heart diseases
Reduced risk of cancer
Higher life expectancy


People who follow vegetarian diets can get all the nutrients they need. they may follow a vegetarian diet for cultural, religious or ethical reasons or may be eat a vegetarian diet to stay healthy and prevent health problems, such as cardiovascular disease.
However, they must be careful to eat a wide variety of foods to meet their nutritional needs. Nutrients vegetarians may need to focus on include protein, iron, calcium, zinc and vitamin B12.

Discuss 5 types of vegetarians.
When people think about a vegetarian diet, they typically think about a diet that doesn't include meat, poultry or fish. But vegetarian diets can be further categorized into three types:
Vegan diets exclude meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy products — and foods that contain these products.
Lacto-vegetarian diets exclude meat, fish, poultry and eggs, as well as foods that contain them. Dairy products, such as milk, cheese, yogurt and butter, are allowed in a lacto-vegetarian diet.
Lacto-ovo vegetarian diets exclude meat, fish and poultry, but allow eggs and dairy products.

Some people follow a semivegetarian diet — also called a flexitarian diet — which is primarily a plant-based diet but includes meat, dairy, eggs, poultry and fish on occasion or in small quantities.


Vegetarian diet pyramid

A healthy diet takes planning, and a food pyramid can be a helpful tool. The vegetarian pyramid outlines food groups and food choices that, if eaten in the right quantities, form the foundation of a healthy vegetarian diet.

Getting adequate nutrition:

The key to a healthy vegetarian diet — like any diet — is to enjoy a variety of foods. No single food can provide all the nutrients your body needs. The more restrictive a diet is, the more challenging it is to get all the nutrients you need. A vegan diet, for example, eliminates food sources of vitamin B-12, as well as milk products, which are good sources of calcium. Therefore, you may need to make an extra effort to ensure that your vegetarian diet includes sufficient quantities of the following nutrients:
Calcium helps build and maintain strong teeth and bones. Milk and low-fat dairy foods are highest in calcium. Dark green vegetables, such as turnip and collard greens, kale and broccoli, are good plant sources when eaten in sufficient quantities. Calcium-enriched and fortified products, including juices, cereals, soy milk, soy yogurt and tofu, are other options.
Iodine is a component in thyroid hormones, which help regulate metabolism, growth and function of many key organs, such as the brain, heart, kidney and thyroid. Vegans may not consume enough iodine and be at risk of iodine deficiency and possibly goiter. In addition, foods such as soybeans, cruciferous vegetables and sweet potatoes may promote goiter. Because food manufacturers may not use iodized salt in processed foods, vegans may want to ensure that they use salt with iodine at the table or in cooking. Just 1/4 teaspoon provides a significant amount of iodine.
Iron is a crucial component of red blood cells. Dried beans and peas, lentils, enriched cereals, whole-grain products, dark leafy green vegetables and dried fruit are good sources of iron. Because iron isn't as easily absorbed from plant sources, the recommended intake of iron for vegetarians is almost double that recommended for nonvegetarians. To help your body absorb iron, eat foods rich in vitamin C, such as strawberries, citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage and broccoli, at the same time as you're eating iron-containing foods.
Omega-3 fatty acids are important for cardiovascular health as well as eye and brain development. Vegetarian diets that do not include fish and eggs are generally low in active forms of omega-3 fats. Because conversion of the plant-based omega-3 to the types used by humans is inefficient, you may want to consider fortified products or supplements or both.
Protein helps maintain healthy skin, bones, muscles and organs. Eggs and dairy products are good sources, and you don't need to eat large amounts to meet your protein needs. You can also get sufficient protein from plant-based foods if you eat a variety of them throughout the day. Plant sources include soy products and meat substitutes, legumes, lentils, nuts, seeds and whole grains.
Vitamin B-12 is necessary to produce red blood cells and prevent anemia. This vitamin is found almost exclusively in animal products, so it can be difficult to get enough B-12 on a vegan diet. Vitamin B-12 deficiency may go undetected in people who eat a vegan diet. This is because the vegan diet is rich in a vitamin called folate, which may mask deficiency in vitamin B-12 until severe problems occur. For this reason, it's important for vegans to consider vitamin supplements, vitamin-enriched cereals and fortified soy products.
Vitamin D plays an important role in bone health. Vitamin D is added to cow's milk, some brands of soy and rice milk (be sure to check the label), and some cereals and margarines. However, if you don't eat enough fortified foods and have limited sun exposure, you may need supplementation with vitamin D-2 (derived from plants).
Zinc is an essential component of many enzymes and plays a role in cell division and in formation of proteins. Like iron, zinc is not as easily absorbed from plant sources as it is from animal products. Cheese is a good option if you eat dairy products. Plant sources of zinc include whole grains, soy products, legumes, nuts and wheat germ.



Define these food related diseases. What foods should be avoided, and what foods should be encouraged to eat to reduce the prevalence of these diseases?

Obesity

EAT MODERATION AMOUNT OF

complex carbohydrates such as pasta,potatoes,rice,legumes and grain product for energy, vitamins and fiber.
fresh vegetables and fruits for vitamin and minerals.low fat dairy product for vitamin and calcium.



avoid food high calorie items such as candy, pastries,fatty meats,alcohol and potato chips



Diabetes

diet strategy :
diet is the conerstone of diabetes management. An appropriate diet can help maintain optimal blood glucose levels and prevent or delay the long terms complication of diabetes. Diabetic should consult a registered dietitian to work out a diet. In addition to managing blood glucose meal planning should take into consideration age and related health concerns like cholestrol levels or high blood preesure.
Your carbohydrates, fats, protein, mix is keys. To maintain healty blood glucose levels meals and snacks should be balanced to provided a mixture of carbohydrates , fats and proteins. Adults may needs to reduce fat and cholesterol intake to protect againts heart and kidneys dieasae. An overweight person needs to focus on weight loss by decreasing caloric intake and increasing daily activities levels.

CARBOHYDRATES

carbohydrates is currency of glucose.for most diabetics carbohydrates rich food such as vegetables,breads,cereals and pasta should accaount for 45% to 60% of their daily calories.because the fiber contenst of these carbohydates slows down the release of glucose, high fiber starches such as barleys, oats cereals, beans, pea, nd lentils, help suppress any sharp increase in blood sugar level after meals.

dietary guideliness allow for simply carbohydarates like sugars,syrups, and sweeteners, to be included in the diet in moderation.as opposed to recommadition in the past the emphasis is now on monitoring total carbohydates comsumption at each meal/snack rather than the source of carbohyhrates.but all carbohyrates are not equals when it comes to nutritions.complex carbohydrates such as grain and cereals provide vitamins, minerals, and fibers whereas sugars and sweetener provide mostly calories therefore,complex carbohyrates shuold make up the bulk of diabetic diet and sugars only a small amount.

soluble fiber the kind found in otmeal may actualy help lower blood sugar levels(it help lower cholestrol)and insoluble fiber found whole grains and many vegewtable helps you full on fewer calories.

PROTEIN

choose nutrisions protein sources.these is no reseach to support either or decreased protein intake for uncomplicated diabetes,so recommended amounts for nondiabetic is also appropiate for adult with diabetes. high quality protein foods(lean meats, meat subtitues and lower fat dairy foods)should supply 10-20% of daily calories.

FAT

people with should follow a lower fat diet.high fat diets contributes to obesity and high colestrole levels.saturated fats in packaged foods and hyrogenated fats from animal food and hydrogenated fats in packaged foods should also be limited.on the other hands, monounsatutred and polynsaturated fats, such as those found in vegetables oils,nuts,fish and avocados.are good for the heart and slow the digestion process.helping to stabilize insulin resistance.






Hypertension

if you have a family or personal history of hypertension, a doctor might decide to put you on a high blood pressure diet as part of a preventative effort or treatment plan. A high blood pressure diet should be customized for the needs of the specific individual since patients may have a variety of health conditions. Here are some tips to help plan your high blood pressure diet:
Reduce sugar intake. You do not want to develop high blood sugar or diabetes in conjunction with your hypertension. The resulting problems could be very dangerous.
Reduce sodium intake as much as possible. You can even consider using a substitute for salt. When using a salt substitute, you should make sure that there are no safety warnings or manufacturer recalls. Many of these products are available at your local drugstore or grocery store.
A diet that is low in saturated fat can help treat hypertension.
Lower tobacco consumption by quitting smoking. Smoking does not necessarily cause hypertension, but when coupled with hypertension, smoking can cause additional complications such as heart disease, heart attacks, and strokes.
Limit alcohol intake. When you do drink, make sure that you drink plenty or water to stay hydrated. Dehydrated can cause your hypertension symptoms to become worse.
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute has found that the DASH diet (dietary approaches to stop hypertension) can help lower blood pressure. This diet includes fruits, vegetables, and foods that are low in fat or fat-free.
Eat foods that are low in cholesterol. By keeping your cholesterol numbers normal, you eliminate another risk factor for heart attacks, heart disease, and stroke.

If diet and lifestyle changes do not effectively control your high blood pressure, then you may need to take a daily medication to keep your blood pressure under control.



Compare the differences between these 3 eating disorders and their impact on a person’s nutritional status:

Anorexia

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimal normal body weight (defined as 15% below average weight for height), an intense fear of becoming fat, and, if female, amenorrhea for at least 3 months. The majority of cases of anorexia nervosa are classified as restricting type; these individuals achieve abnormally low weight by severely dieting, fasting, and often by exercising compulsively. In severe cases, patients refuse to eat and can die of starvation or severe medical complications. Another subtype of anorexia nervosa is binge eating/purging type. Despite being emaciated or dangerously thin, persons with anorexia nervosa perceive themselves as overweight (distorted body image), deny the seriousness of their condition, and have an intense fear of becoming fat.

Anorexia nervosa occurs in roughly 1% of adolescent and young adult females. Most cases (90%) are female, and the majority are Caucasian and come from middle-class or higher socioeconomic groups. Anorexia nervosa is more prevalent in industrialized countries that share western views regarding thinness as an ideal. It develops most frequently during adolescence.

Persons with anorexia nervosa frequently manifest symptoms of depression and anxiety. The restricting type of anorexia nervosa is associated with obsessionality, rigidity, perfectionism, and overcontrol, whereas the binge/purge subtype is associated with greater mood instability and impulsivity across a wide range of areas, including substance abuse.

Although some cases of anorexia nervosa show no evidence of medical problems, prolonged starvation affects most organ systems, and a wide array of medical problems tend to be present. Long-term mortality from anorexia nervosa is estimated at 5–10% with most deaths resulting from starvation, cardiac events, or suicide.

The causes of anorexia nervosa are not yet understood but are likely to involve a complex combination of genetic, familial, psychological, and sociocultural factors. The onset of anorexia nervosa tends to follow a period of dieting and is frequently triggered by a stressful life events or transitions.

Since the starvation and weight loss can be life-threatening, initial treatment efforts need to focus on weight gain and the reestablishment of regular eating patterns. Inpatient hospitalization is frequently necessary. Although significant psychological issues tend to be present, it is generally ineffective to address these until weight has been stabilized. Once weight gain is achieved, psychotherapies can become useful. Relapse rates are high.

Bulimia

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating (eating large amounts of food while experiencing a subjective sense of lack of control over the eating), the regular use of extreme weight compensatory methods (for example, self-induced vomiting), and dysfunctional beliefs about weight and shape that unduly influence self-evaluation or self-worth.

Bulimia nervosa occurs in roughly 2% of adolescents and adults. It is most common in females (90% of cases), Caucasians, and middle-class or higher socioeconomic groups. The prevalence of bulimia has increased over the past few decades, and is also becoming more common in non-Caucasian groups.

Persons with bulimia nervosa have high rates of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse problems. Although this condition is less dangerous than anorexia nervosa, medical complications can occur. Dental erosion and periodontal problems are common. Electrolyte imbalance and dehydration can result in serious medical complications, including cardiac arrhythmias. In rare cases, esophageal bleeding and gastric ruptures occur.

Bulimia nervosa is likely to result from a combination of genetic, familial, psychological, and sociocultural factors. Although many persons have weight and diet concerns, the development of bulimia is thought to arise only in vulnerable individuals and usually after a stressful event. Bulimia nervosa is a self-maintaining vicious cycle.

Bulimia nervosa can often be treated successfully with outpatient therapies. Cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy have been found to be most effective for reducing binge eating and vomiting and improving associated concerns such as depression, self-esteem, and body image. These two therapies also have the best results over the long term. Certain types of pharmacotherapy, notably antidepressant medications, are also effective.

Binge-eating

Binge eating disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating but, unlike bulimia nervosa, no extreme weight control behaviors (purging, laxatives, fasting) are present. Persons with binge eating disorder have chaotic eating patterns and frequently overeat as well as binge.

Although obesity is not required for the diagnosis, many people with binge eating disorder are overweight. Binge eating disorder is estimated to occur in 3% of the general population but in roughly 30% of obese persons. Binge eating disorder occurs most frequently in adulthood, affects men nearly as often as women, and occurs across different ethnic groups.

Obese binge eaters are characterized by higher levels of psychiatric problems (depression, anxiety, substance abuse) and psychological problems (poor self-esteem, body image dissatisfaction) than non-binge eaters and closely resemble persons with bulimia nervosa. Overweight persons with binge eating disorder are at high risk for further weight gain and weight fluctuations and associated medical complications. The etiology of binge eating disorder is unknown.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is effective for reducing binge eating and improving associated concerns such as depression, self-esteem, and body image, but does not seem to result in weight loss. There is some evidence that behavioral weight control treatment can reduce binge eating and facilitate weight loss. Antidepressant medications appear to reduce binge eating but do not produce weight loss; relapse is rapid after discontinuation of the medication.





Describe the benefits of the following infant feeding:-

Exclusive breastfeeding
Besides being an integral part of a mother-child bonding experience when available, here are some other important reasons to consider breastfeeding:

BENEFITS FOR BABY:




Breast milk is the most complete form of nutrition for infants. A mother's milk has just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, and protein that is needed for a baby's growth and development. Most babies find it easier to digest breast milk than they do formula.
As a result, breastfed infants grow exactly the way they should. They tend to gain less unnecessary weight and to be leaner. This may result in being less overweight later in life.
Premature babies do better when breastfed compared to premature babies who are fed formula.
Breastfed babies score slightly higher on IQ tests, especially babies who were born pre-maturely.

BENEFITS FOR MOM:

Nursing uses up extra calories, making it easier to lose the pounds of pregnancy. It also helps the uterus to get back to its original size and lessens any bleeding a woman may have after giving birth.
Breastfeeding, especially exclusive breastfeeding (no supplementing with formula), delays the return of normal ovulation and menstrual cycles. (However, you should still talk with your doctor or nurse about birth control choices.)
Breastfeeding lowers the risk of breast and ovarian cancers, and possibly the risk of hip fractures and osteoporosis after menopause.
Breastfeeding makes your life easier. It saves time and money. You do not have to purchase, measure, and mix formula. There are no bottles to warm in the middle of the night!
A mother can give her baby immediate satisfaction by providing her breast milk when her baby is hungry.
Breastfeeding requires a mother to take some quiet relaxed time for herself and her baby.
Breastfeeding can help a mother to bond with her baby. Physical contact is important to newborns and can help them feel more secure, warm and comforted.
Breastfeeding mothers may have increased self-confidence and feelings of closeness and bonding with their infants.

BENEFITS FOR SOCIETY:

Breastfeeding saves on health care costs. Total medical care costs for the nation are lower for fully breastfed infants than never-breastfed infants since breastfed infants typically need fewer sick care visits, prescriptions, and hospitalizations.
Breastfeeding contributes to a more productive workforce. Breastfeeding mothers miss less work, as their infants are sick less often. Employer medical costs also are lower and employee productivity is higher.
Breastfeeding is better for our environment because there is less trash and plastic waste compared to that produced by formula cans and bottle supplies.



Health Risks of Not Breastfeeding



Breast milk has agents (called antibodies) in it to help protect infants from bacteria and viruses. Recent studies show that babies who are not exclusively breastfed for 6 months are more likely to develop a wide range of infectious diseases including ear infections, diarrhea, respiratory illnesses and have more hospitalizations. Also, infants who are not breastfed have a 21% higher postneonatal infant mortality rate in the U.S.
Some studies suggest that infants who are not breastfed have higher rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in the first year of life, and higher rates of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, lymphoma, leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, overweight and obesity, high cholesterol and asthma. More research in these areas is needed (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2005).
Babies who are not breastfed are sick more often and have more doctor's visits.
Also, when you breastfeed, there are no bottles and nipples to sterilize. Unlike human milk straight from the breast, infant formula has a chance of being contaminated.

Formula or Bottle feeding
advantages.


♥your baby may sleep for longer in between feeds,




♥you can ask someone else, such as your partner, or a family member, to feed your baby if you need to take a break, and




♥formula milk has added vitamin K - vitamin K helps the blood to clot, but the body's ability to store it is low. In rare cases (affecting approximately 1 in 10,000 babies), a vitamin K deficiency can cause a bleeding condition, known as haemorrhagic disease of the newborn (HDN). It can occur anytime between the first few days of life to the first few months and it can be life threatening. Typical bleed sites include the gums, nose, and gastrointestinal tract. The condition is most common in babies who are born prematurely, or who had a complicated delivery, such as a breech delivery. There may also be an increased risk of the condition developing if the mother was taking certain drugs during pregnancy, such as anticonvulsants to treat epilepsy. However, HDN can be prevented by giving a baby extra vitamin K after birth, and breastfed babies may be given vitamin K supplements (orally or by injection) with their parents' informed consent.






disadvantages.


♥babies who are bottle fed using formula milk are more likely to develop illnesses, such as diarrhoea, or a chest, ear, or urine infection. There is also an increased risk of premature babies who are bottle fed developing a rare, but serious condition called necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), where the intestines are damaged due to infection and a poor supply of blood,




♥when making formula milk, it is possible to get the mixture wrong and make it too strong, too weak, or too hot. There is also a lot of work involved in thoroughly washing and sterilising all of the equipment that is needed for bottle feeding,




♥in studies carried out comparing babies who were breastfed with those who were bottle fed, bottle fed babies were found to have an increased risk of obesity at least until six years of age,




♥bottle feeding using formula milk can be expensive. It has been estimated that it costs at least £450 a year to feed a baby using formula milk, and




♥once you have decided not to breastfeed your baby it is difficult to reverse the decision and begin breastfeeding. Also, if you decide to combine bottle feeding with breastfeeding, you should not introduce bottle feeding during the first six weeks of life, because the difference between nipples can confuse the baby, cause feeding problems, and it can interfere with the establishment of breastfeeding.






bottle feeding.


advantages.


♥your baby may sleep for longer in between feeds,




♥you can ask someone else, such as your partner, or a family member, to feed your baby if you need to take a break, and




♥formula milk has added vitamin K - vitamin K helps the blood to clot, but the body's ability to store it is low. In rare cases (affecting approximately 1 in 10,000 babies), a vitamin K deficiency can cause a bleeding condition, known as haemorrhagic disease of the newborn (HDN). It can occur anytime between the first few days of life to the first few months and it can be life threatening. Typical bleed sites include the gums, nose, and gastrointestinal tract. The condition is most common in babies who are born prematurely, or who had a complicated delivery, such as a breech delivery. There may also be an increased risk of the condition developing if the mother was taking certain drugs during pregnancy, such as anticonvulsants to treat epilepsy. However, HDN can be prevented by giving a baby extra vitamin K after birth, and breastfed babies may be given vitamin K supplements (orally or by injection) with their parents' informed consent.






disadvantages.


♥babies who are bottle fed using formula milk are more likely to develop illnesses, such as diarrhoea, or a chest, ear, or urine infection. There is also an increased risk of premature babies who are bottle fed developing a rare, but serious condition called necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), where the intestines are damaged due to infection and a poor supply of blood,




♥when making formula milk, it is possible to get the mixture wrong and make it too strong, too weak, or too hot. There is also a lot of work involved in thoroughly washing and sterilising all of the equipment that is needed for bottle feeding,




♥in studies carried out comparing babies who were breastfed with those who were bottle fed, bottle fed babies were found to have an increased risk of obesity at least until six years of age,




♥bottle feeding using formula milk can be expensive. It has been estimated that it costs at least RM 1,500 a year to feed a baby using formula milk, and




♥once you have decided not to breastfeed your baby it is difficult to reverse the decision and begin breastfeeding. Also, if you decide to combine bottle feeding with breastfeeding, you should not introduce bottle feeding during the first six weeks of life, because the difference between nipples can confuse the baby, cause feeding problems, and it can interfere with the establishment of breastfeeding.

Weaning foods
Solid food is gradually introduced to a baby's diet, alongside its previous diet of breast or formula milk, at around six months (though this varies slightly from child to child). Before this, a child's digestive system and kidneys are still developing and are not yet ready to deal with solid food.

Soft, runny food such as mashed fruit or vegetables are introduced to babies in the early stages of weaning, as they do not have teeth and are unable to chew. Certain foods are recommended to be avoided, such as those containing nuts or high levels of gluten, salt, or sugar. The United Kingdom's NHS recommends withholding nuts, eggs and shellfish until a baby is six months old, in order to reduce allergic reactions. However, recommendations such as these have been called into question by research that suggests early exposure to potential allergens does not increase the likelihood of allergic reactions.
Weaning conflict

Weaning conflict occurs when the mother wishes to stop nursing but the infant wishes to continue. At this point, the mother tries to force the infant to cease nursing, while the infant attempts to force the mother to continue. From an evolutionary perspective, weaning conflict may be considered the result of the cost of continued nursing to the mother, perhaps in terms of reduced ability to raise future offspring, exceeding the benefits to the mother in terms of increased survival of the current infant. This can come about because future offspring will be equally related to the mother as the current infant, but will share less than 100% of the current infant's genes. So, from the perspective of the mother's evolutionary fitness, it makes sense for her to cease nursing the current infant as soon as the cost to future offspring exceeds the benefit to the current infant. But, assuming the current infant shares 50% of the future offsprings' genes, from the perspective of the infant's own evolutionary fitness, it makes sense for the infant to continue nursing until the cost to future offspring exceeds twice the benefit to itself. Weaning conflict has been studied for a variety of mammal species, including primates and canines.
Cultural variations in age at time of weaning

The age at which children are normatively weaned can vary significantly between cultures, "from 6 months to 5 1/2 years". There is often a cultural expectation in the United States that children be weaned early, and there have been scientific studies performed to validate this expectation. However, as Barbara Rogoff has noted, citing a 1953 study by Whiting & Child, the most distressing time to wean a child is at 13-18 months. After this peak, weaning becomes progressively easier and less distressing for the child, with "older children frequently wean[ing] themselves.






Discuss the effect of these food/ beverage/ drug to pregnant women.:=

Coffee

A February 2003 Danish study of 18,478 women linked heavy coffee consumption during pregnancy to significantly increased risk of stillbirths (but no significantly increased risk of infant death in the first year). "The results seem to indicate a threshold effect around four to seven cups per day," the study reported. Those who drank eight or more cups a day (64 U.S. fl oz or 1.89 L) were at 220% increased risk compared with nondrinkers. This study has not yet been repeated, but has caused some doctors to caution against excessive coffee consumption during pregnancy.

Decaffeinated coffee is also regarded as a potential health risk to pregnant women when chemical solvents are used to extract the caffeine instead of other less invasive processes. The impact of these chemicals is debated, however, as the solvents in question evaporate at 80–90 °C, and coffee beans are decaffeinated before roasting, which occurs at approximately 200 °C. As such, these chemicals, namely trichloroethane and methylene chloride, are present in trace amounts at most, and may not pose a significant threat to embryos and fetuses.
Iron deficiency anemia

Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia in mothers and infants. Coffee also interferes with the absorption of supplemental iron.

Cigarettes

It is crucial for pregnant women to stay away from certain activities, and smoking is one of them. Undoubtedly smoking is a bad option for pregnant women. Women who smoke during pregnancy are subjected to enhanced risks of giving birth to a stillborn baby, suffering a miscarriage, or delivering a baby with unsatisfactory birth weight. Smoking by pregnant women doubles the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome or SIDS that causes sudden death of their healthy children.

Cigarette smoking can augment the threat of a diverse range of complications related to pregnancy such as premature rupture of membranes, vaginal bleeding and premature placental detachment. Smoking also hinders the absorption of vitamins B and C and folic acid in pregnant mothers. Deficiency in folic acid can lead to flaws in the neural tube. Numerous chemicals present in cigarette smoke, for example carbon monoxide and nicotine, are toxic in nature that progress through a pregnant woman’s bloodstream and adversely affect the developing baby.

When a pregnant woman smokes, it diminishes the supply of oxygen to the baby. The nicotine can result in the increased heart rate of the baby. Nicotine diminishes the baby’s source of nutrients due to the augmented blood pressure and blood vessel constriction

For some pregnant women quitting in the first trimester is easy, as during this period they develop an abrupt aversion to cigarettes. Women who give up smoking at this stage greatly reduce the probability of miscarriage. They may also decrease the possibility of the baby’s improper development. It is advisable for women to give up smoking prior to becoming pregnant. Quitting the habit in the early stages can ensure the birth of a healthy baby.

Pregnant women who give up smoking during the second trimester of pregnancy diminish the possibilities of developing complications like placenta previa going into pre-term labor and even stillbirth. If a pregnant woman is unsuccessful in her attempt to quit smoking in the first trimester, she should try to reduce the number of cigarettes she smokes. This can immensely help her baby.

Even if a pregnant woman stops smoking in the third trimester, it can enhance the chances of giving birth to a healthy, full-term, normal birth-weight baby. Decrease in birth-weight of babies is closely connected to the number of cigarettes the mother smokes. There is a direct link between smoking and damaged fetal growth. Pregnant women who give up smoking at this juncture can thwart the prospect of losing one’s baby to SIDS. The sooner a pregnant woman gives up smoking, better the chances of giving birth to a healthy baby.

Drugs

Drugs and the Stages of Pregnancy

Some drugs can be harmful when used at any time during pregnancy; others, however, are particularly damaging at specific stages.

The stage of organ formation

Most of the body organs and systems of the baby-to-be are formed within the first ten weeks or so of pregnancy (calculated from the date of the last menstrual period). During this stage, some drugs—and alcohol in particular—can cause malformations of such parts of the developing fetus as the heart, the limbs, and the facial features.

The stage of prenatal growth

After about the tenth week, the fetus should grow rapidly in weight and size. At this stage, certain drugs may damage organs that are still developing, such as the eyes, as well as the nervous system. Continuing drug use also increases the risk of miscarriage and premature delivery. But the greatest danger drugs pose at this stage is their potential to interfere with normal growth. Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) is likely to result in a low-birthweight baby—a baby born too early, too small, or both. Low-birthweight babies require special care and run a much higher risk of severe health problems or even death.

The stage of birth

Some drugs can be especially harmful at the end of pregnancy. They may make delivery more difficult or dangerous, or they may create health problems for the newborn baby

Alcohol

Alcohol is one of the most dangerous drugs for pregnant women, especially in the early weeks. In the mother’s body, alcohol breaks down chemically to a cell-damaging compound that is readily absorbed by the fetus. Heavy drinking during early pregnancy greatly increases the risk of a cluster of birth defects known as fetal alcohol syndrome. This cluster includes a small skull (microcephaly), abnormal facial features, and heart defects, often accompanied by impeded growth and mental retardation. Heavy drinking in later pregnancy may also impede growth.

It is not known whether light to moderate drinking can produce these effects. However, even if the risk is low, the stakes are very high. Medical experts agree that a woman should avoid alcohol entirely when she decides to become pregnant, or at least when the first signs of pregnancy appear. Even such mild beverages as beer and wine coolers should be off limits.



What are the best diets for pregnant women to ensure her babies are healthy?

Eat a variety of foods to get all the nutrients you need. Recommended daily servings include 6-11 servings of breads and grains, two to four servings of fruit, four or more servings of vegetables, four servings of dairy products, and three servings of protein sources (meat, poultry, fish, eggs or nuts). Use fats and sweets sparingly.
Choose foods high in fiber that are enriched such as whole-grain breads, cereals, pasta, rice, fruits, and vegetables.
Make sure you are getting enough vitamins and minerals in your daily diet while pregnant. You should take a prenatal vitamin supplement to make sure you are consistently getting enough vitamins and minerals every day. Your doctor can recommend an over-the-counter brand or prescribe a prenatal vitamin for you.
Eat and drink at least four servings of dairy products and calcium-rich foods a day to help ensure that you are getting 1000-1300 mg of calcium in your daily diet during pregnancy.
Eat at least three servings of iron-rich foods per day to ensure you are getting 27 mg of iron daily.
Choose at least one good source of vitamin C every day, such as oranges, grapefruits, strawberries, honeydew, papaya, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts, green peppers, tomatoes, and mustard greens. Pregnant women need 70 mg of vitamin C a day.
Choose at least one good source of folic acid every day, like dark green leafy vegetables, veal, and legumes (lima beans, black beans, black-eyed peas and chickpeas). Every pregnant woman needs at least 0.4 mg of folic acid per day to help prevent neural tube defects such as spina bifida.
Choose at least one source of vitamin A every other day. Sources of vitamin A include carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, spinach, water squash, turnip greens, beet greens, apricots, and cantaloupe. Know that excessive vitamin A intake (>10,000 IU/day) may be associated with fetal malformations.